Abstract

Twenty-first century pedagogy advocates for the adoption of a multiliteracies pedagogical approach and educational technology in language teaching and learning. This study presents the findings of a descriptive case study investigating teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the use of audio-visual aids (AVA) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching. This study employed a mixed-method research design. Data were collected from surveys, class observations, semi-structured interviews, and focus groups with 8 teachers and 120 students in Indonesian junior high school settings. The findings revealed that the use of AVA such as YouTube, songs, and films has positively developed students’ engagement and motivation in English language learning. However, the study participants found some issues and challenges, including technical problems, lack of time, and an absence of specific policy or institutional guidelines at the school level on the use of AVA in secondary education settings. Therefore, it is important to improve teachers’ pedagogical and content area knowledge; this is required in 21st century teaching and learning. Given that fact, to help prepare students for the 21st century workplace, promoting the use of AVA in language learning lesson plans both in pre-service teacher training and in teacher professional development in secondary settings is recommended. It is expected that this strategy will develop a student-centred approach and active learning that will create an engaging learning environment for students with varied backgrounds and learning preferences to promote inclusive pedagogies in language teaching.

Keywords

Audio-visual aids (AVA), EFL teaching, teacher professional development

Introduction

The expansion of multimedia and the internet has shifted the conventional printed text materials which focus only on a single linguistics semiotic system to multimodal ones which combine different semiotic systems, including audio, visual, linguistic, spatial, and gestural (Kress, 2005)^[1]. The phenomenon has drawn the attention of researchers and educators and encouraged them to incorporate audio-visual aids (AVA) into English language teaching (ELT)^[2].

Teachers’ use of AVA as a differentiated EFL teaching material approach to best suit students’ needs (Harmer 2007; Tomlinson, 2014) is one of the notable strategies in 21st century teaching which encouraged the use of multimodality in language education to promote inclusive pedagogical practices.

Therefore, in regards to the recent practice of English language teaching, particularly in EFL/ESL contexts, teachers should focus on meaning-making-focused activities rather than on linguistic forms or grammar-focused teaching (Kress, 2005; Nawawi et al., 2022; Sidik, 2022). Furthermore, Dörnyei (1994) advised teachers to develop teaching materials with sociocultural components and relate them to students’ real life experiences to maintain their language learning motivation.

Given the need to incorporate AVA into English language teaching, one of the main focuses of Indonesian government educational policies was to encourage any pedagogical practices complemented with audio-visual content. One significant effort was reflected by implementing curriculum which encourages student-centred learning classroom designs and promotes integration of technology and multimodality into teaching and learning. Therefore, a shift from a focus on monomodal, print-based literacy to a focus on the skills essential for producing and consuming multiliteracies is required in 21st century teaching practices (Kress, 2005; Ministry of Education and Culture, 2018).

Previous studies on the use of AVA in EFL teaching were mostly conducted to explore either teachers’ perceptions or students’ perceptions on the use of AVA. There have been few studies of actual classroom practices in the use of AVA in the Indonesian context. This study was conducted to investigate both teachers’ and students’ perceptions on the effectiveness of AVA in EFL teaching and learning settings in Indonesia.

In addition, Indonesia continues to integrate technology in educational settings, including audio-visual aids and digital books, to increase students’ motivation and engagement and to support students in remote areas to access a wide range of learning materials (Uko & Hutasoit, 2025).

Literature review

There are various definitions of AVA, such as Kinder (1942) who defined AVA as any device which can be used to make the learning experience more concrete, realistic, and dynamic. According to Burton (1955), the definition of AVA is “sensory objectives and images which stimulate an emphasis on learning process” (p. 1). Another definition of AVA was provided by Tawil and Dahlan (2021) who defined AVA as “a combination of audio-visual materials which helps convey information more clearly and interestingly” (p. 2).

In this study, the term AVA refers to all audio-visual materials (AVM) that are useful for English language teaching and learning, including songs, films, You-Tube clips, videos, and non-projected media such as still pictures, flash cards, etc.

Classifications of AVA are described in Figure 16.1 below.

Benefits of AVA in EFL teaching

The use of AVA in education has gained considerable attention from many researchers and experts in the EFL/ESL settings, particularly following the UNESCO (2015) proclamation since 1953 regarding the importance of incorporation of AVA into the educational field. In this view, AVA should be incorporated into classrooms effectively and are an essential aspect of education due to their prominent benefits in increasing students’ motivation and engagement as well as promoting an active learning environment (Lestage, 1959; Reiser, 2001).

Multiple studies have revealed that AVA-based teaching strategies enhance students’ learning (Gao, 2022; Pang, 2020; Sit & Guo, 2019; Tang & Intai, 2018). In addition, Serafini (2012) claimed that in traditional literacy, reading is only decoding printed texts, but in today’s educational environment, reading is more concerned with negotiating meaning and analysing texts in socio-cultural contexts. As such, the use of AVA is considered a significant strategy to help learners in the process of meaning-making, particularly in reading literary texts (Serafini, 2012).

Previous studies have also found that the use of AVA improves students’ language skills; the use of song, for example, improved students’ performance in listening and in vocabulary (Djahimo, 2017; Pamangin, 2022). Similarly, the use of video clips has improved students’ pronunciation (Maharani, 2017).

Regarding the benefits of AVA to improve students’ speaking skills, one study was conducted by Kurniawan (2016). He conducted experimental research in one junior high school in Aceh province, Indonesia, where he employed a one-group pre-test post-test design with a set of tests and questionnaires as the instruments. The sample was 18 students in Year 8. The findings revealed that there was an improvement in students’ post-test of 67% compared to the improvement of the pre-test which was only 58%. In addition, 92% of students’ responses were positive towards the use of AVA, including the use of video clips and films in EFL classrooms.

One recent study explored the benefit of AVA on students’ motivation in language learning when AVA was integrated in the EFL teaching. Hasibuan et al. (2022) employed Classroom Action Research (CAR) to investigate AVA use in their listening class by using video clips. The participants were 12 students in Grade 8 studying in one of the private junior high schools located in Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia. In his second cycle, the results showed that the use of AVA improved students’ motivation and concentration in the listening tasks (Hasibuan et al., 2022).

In terms of the integration of AVA in the EFL textbook, Cheng et al.’s (2011) findings revealed that print-based materials equipped with multimodal resources such as images or audio-visuals such as CD-ROMs can facilitate students’ learning and increase their motivation in English language learning. Lastly, the integration of audio-visual aids (AVA) supports inclusive pedagogies as it allows for diverse learning preferences, catering to a wider range of students with different individual needs and preferences by providing multiple sensory inputs and engaging them more effectively (Falasca, 2024). Therefore, the use of AVA caters a diverse quality and effective learning environment which is aligned with UN Sustainable Development Goal Number 4 for inclusive and equitable quality education and “inclusive and effective learning environments for all” (Falasca, 2024).

Issues and challenges of AVA in EFL teaching

Several studies have investigated the issues and challenges of AVA in EFL settings (Fitri & Putro, 2021; Simanjutak et al., 2021). Fitri and Putro (2021) conducted a quantitative study investigating 126 teachers in a secondary school in Jogjakarta. They investigated teachers’ perceptions on the effectiveness of ICT and AVA during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results revealed that most EFL teachers had positive perceptions towards the use of ICT and AVA materials. Nevertheless, they found some issues: dealing with lack of internet access, little technical support from schools, and teachers’ limited knowledge of ICT. The findings of this study confirmed the researcher’s study results dealing with the difficulties faced by teachers in integrating AVA into EFL teaching. Similar concerns on the issues and challenges of using AVA in EFL were echoed by Simanjutak et al. (2021) who integrated YouTube into their EFL teaching in an Indonesian university. Their findings aligned with Fitri and Putro’s (2021) that unreliable Wi-Fi access and teachers’ lack of knowledge in technology were the most common barriers in incorporating AVA into Indonesian EFL teaching.

Reporting similar findings to those experienced by Indonesian EFL teachers, Kwegyiriba et al. (2022) conducted a qualitative study on the integration of AVA in nine junior high schools in Ghana, investigating 99 teacher and student participants on the use of AVA in EFL. Most teacher and student participants revealed that the main hindrances to EFL teachers integrating AVA in EFL classrooms were the lack of infrastructure and the lack of guidelines or government policy on how to do so.

Theoretical framework

The framework of the use of AVA in EFL teaching and learning is based on the Socio-Cultural Theory (Vygotsky, 1978). In this approach, teachers provide support and assistance through scaffolding and giving guidance to the learners until they can take responsibility for their own learning. This concept is known as the ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ (ZPD). The ZPD is “the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).

Regarding the use of AVA in EFL teaching, EFL teachers should provide learners instructions and guidance on how to utilise the materials until they are able to use them independently to facilitate their language learning. The use of AVA is supported by constructivist theory, as it aims to improve students’ independence in ESL/EFL learning (Paesani & Allen, 2020).

This study fits this social constructivism theory as; by integrating AVA into English language teaching, students were more engaged in English language learning and constructed their own knowledge and understanding based on their prior knowledge and the role of teachers as the facilitators (Vygotsky, 1978). In addition, this approach also involves learners in making choices about activities which they preferred to do (Harmer, 2007; Lengkanawati, 2017).

Methodology

This study adopted a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, which commenced with data collection and analysis from surveys in a quantitative phase, followed by data collection and analysis from interviews, class observations, and focus groups as qualitative phases which provided richer data to investigate the gap between the curriculum and the actual practice, and issues and challenges faced by both teachers and students in the EFL classrooms (Creswell, 2014).

Data were collected from classroom observations (n=8 class visits), semi-structured interviews (n=8 teachers) and focus groups (n=8 student focus groups). Classroom observations and semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight English teachers from the four different types of junior high schools: state junior high school, state Islamic junior high school, private junior high school, and private Islamic junior high school.

Participants

There were five research data collection phases in this project. In the first phase, an online quantitative survey was distributed to explore teachers’ perceptions on the use of AVA in English language classrooms. From the quantitative survey which was distributed to 149 teachers from 32 junior high schools in Java Indonesia, the researcher gained initial data which indicated their positive perception of the use of AVA in English language teaching. The second data collection phase was to distribute a paper-based survey to 120 junior high school 7th grade students from these four different types of schools in Malang, East Java. Indonesian students were selected from the classes the teacher had identified as those in which they were going to demonstrate their audio-visual approaches to EFL teaching. The third phase was classroom observations conducted by asking the eight teachers who had agreed to participate to create instructional lessons using AVA in their English language teaching. The eight classroom observations were conducted for one month at the targeted research sites. The fourth phase followed: one-to-one semi-structured interviews were held with eight volunteer English language junior secondary school teachers from the four different types of schools in Malang, In the fifth and last phase of this study, the researcher employed Student Focus Groups (SFG) to explore student responses after being taught by using AVA. There were 40 students in the SFG, consisting of five students in each group from the four research sites.

Analysis

Considering the exploratory nature of these research questions, descriptive statistics were initially used to analyse both teachers and student surveys. Both teacher and student surveys were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26 software. SPSS is considered the most common statistical software for analysing quantitative data in social science studies because it is easy to learn and apply (Creswell, 2014; Johnson & Christensen, 2014).

The process of teaching and learning in the classroom observations was audio-recorded to preserve the data for analysis, with an observation checklist protocol used to complement the audio recordings analysis. Field notes were used to record the lessons carefully by writing down the important information of the class activities.

After the data were collected and transcribed, the transcript was analysed using thematic analysis which employed six phases as described in Figure 16.2 below.

Student focus groups were recorded with the students’ consent and transcribed for analysis. SFG were then analysed by using thematic analysis to explore students’ experiences with AVA materials and their perspectives on their teachers’ use of AVA in their English classrooms (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017).

Findings and discussion

Firstly, the findings from the overall survey of teachers (n=149) indicated that most teachers (85%) had positive attitudes towards the use of AVA in English language teaching. In addition, they also agreed that AVA were effective in their English language teaching. These findings are aligned with previous studies that identified the considerable benefits of AVA in EFL contexts. However, despite the tremendous benefits of using AVA in the Indonesian EFL contexts, some issues and challenges were faced by the teachers due to technical problems, lack of training, cultural beliefs, and inadequate facilities.

Some examples of open-ended responses describing teachers’ challenges in the incorporation of AVA into their English language teaching are presented in the following excerpts. “Sometimes when I taught using AVA materials such as playing some videos, the electricity was off so I could not continue teaching” (T-79)^[3]. Another teacher echoed this challenge, stating: “I could not integrate AVA into my English teaching mostly because of unreliable internet access in my school” (T-38).

In addition, despite the wide use of AVA in EFL teaching in Indonesian junior high schools, some teachers from Islamic schools (65%) encountered difficulties in finding AVA materials which fitted with their beliefs and cultural values. These findings confirmed previous research on the cultural constraints on the integration of AVA in EFL contexts (Listyani, 2022; Siregar & Ramadhan, 2018; Suherdi, 2012).

The results from the survey case study students showed that almost all student respondents (n=120) had positive perceptions toward the use of AVA in English language teaching as they opted for ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’ in most survey items as described in Figure 16.3 below.

However, the results indicated that most of the students were struggling with vocabulary when their teacher’s used AVA in EFL teaching. There were some factors that might cause this, such as that, compared to other EFL resources which are designed for educational purposes such as websites, video platforms and digital learning platforms like Moodle, BBC Learning English, etc., which were adapted and developed to suit students’ English proficiency level, the AVA materials used by the teacher participants were authentic ones such as films, YouTube clips, and songs, which meant that those materials were not designed for educational purposes, so they might have had more complex and unfamiliar words. Another factor contributing to students’ low vocabulary mastery was that in the English language, the written form is different from the spoken form. Therefore, some students had more trouble understanding both the spellings and the meanings of the words.

Secondly, the findings from classroom observation revealed that based on the researcher’s field notes, students were more motivated and engaged when they were taught by using AVA materials. These findings were confirmed by the class behaviour that indicated students’ high level of engagement, such as raising their hands to answer questions and the student active-learning environment when their teachers used AVA in the English language teaching. Seven of the eight observed teachers incorporated AVA into their EFL teaching by using songs, YouTube videos, films, and PowerPoint, while one teacher employed non-projected aids by using traditional or still picture cards as an instructional medium. From the observational data, it can also be identified that the teachers effectively taught the lessons by incorporating AVA materials into their lesson plans. However, despite teachers’ considerable support of the use of AVA, the author noted that their pedagogical strategies, such as giving verbal instruction was still dominantly teacher-centred and the teachers mostly used traditional methods of teaching by explaining the lessons using print-based materials such as textbooks and work sheets. It seemed that the use of AVA was predominantly considered as a stimulus for activity-based tasks before asking the students to do the lesson tasks provided in the textbooks. These results were in line with the research findings by Sidik (2022) that the use of AVA or multimodality in Indonesian EFL contexts was merely considered as supporting print-based materials rather than developing students’ multimodal literacy. Furthermore, studies conducted by Rinekso (2021) and Hanifa (2018) revealed that there was a lack of AVA-based materials in the secondary education English textbooks mandated by the Indonesian government. Therefore, this phenomenon hinders the integration of AVA in EFL junior high school teaching as the EFL teachers lacked AVA materials and pedagogical knowledge on how to integrate AVA into EFL teaching and learning.

However, as outlined below, despite the fact that a teacher-centred approach was still prominent in the observed classes, the teachers perceived that the use of AVA increased students’ motivation and engagement. Therefore, the author recommends that to promote a more student-centred approach, the Indonesian government needs to support EFL teachers’ professional development on integrating AVA into English language teaching in secondary settings.

Thirdly, teachers’ interview findings revealed the benefits of AVA in EFL teaching. Below are some examples of teachers’ responses on how AVA improve students’ language skills.

Two teachers stated that AVA increased their students’ grammar:

The use of AVA really helps me in teaching grammar that was usually considered difficult by most of the students. For example, by using a conversation from a video clip, I took some sentences to be analysed grammatically, e.g., noun clause, tenses and possessive pronouns. This activity increased my students’ understanding on the grammatical concepts. (T5-S3)

I believe that learning grammar by using songs or films worked well because when my students listened to the song lyrics or the film scripts, they absorbed grammar and syntax subconsciously. (T8-S4)

However, another teacher found that students experienced difficulties in speaking due to the lack of vocabulary and teaching strategies needed to adapt to the skills of the students. “I found that some struggling students had difficulties in speaking because of their limited vocabulary, even when I played a short movie or a song, they also do not understand the content or what the conversations were about” (T7-S4).

In addition, two other teachers provided responses dealing with time constraints within the classroom setting and less flexibility in lesson planning due to the condition that in Indonesian junior high schools, English is typically taught for four to five hours per week, and teachers should use mandated textbooks as the primary materials. In addition, another teacher stated her difficulties in finding an extra time to create appropriate AVA materials: “I have limited time to integrate AVA materials in my teaching course designs” (T8- S4); “I need more time to find or create such kind of AVA materials that are suitable for my students” (T7-S4).

Fourthly, the findings from SFG indicated that the use of AVA has effectively increased students’ motivation and improved their English language skills. Furthermore, 90% of the student participants stated that the use of AVA improves their English language skills. However, despite the acknowledged advantages of the use of AVA in English language learning and teaching, in confidential surveys and interviews 75% of the student participants stated that they found difficulties in understanding AVA materials due to the lack of vocabulary as well as the fast speech speed of the native speakers, as those AVA materials were taken from authentic materials such as films and YouTube clips. Therefore, the student participants suggested that more attention should be paid to the AVA material selection, particularly to the level of difficulty, the selection of vocabulary, and the speed of the conversation (with accents representing another area of confusion).

In addition, at the time of their teachers’ use of AVA materials in class, the student participants did not provide any feedback or were reluctant to give critiques to their teachers regarding the level of difficulty of the AVA materials, including the length and time duration of the individual clips and vocabulary choice which they considered beyond their level of proficiency.

A study conducted by Jalaluddin and Jazadi (2020) revealed that most Indonesian students shared the culturally embedded characteristics of passivity, shyness, unwillingness to ask questions or speak in class, and lack of critical thinking. Devayanti & Pudjibudojo (2025) added that the factors that caused these traits might be the Indonesian conventional wisdom that the teacher is the source of knowledge, as in the Javanese saying ‘guru iku di gugu lan ditiru’ meaning teachers must be trusted and followed. Despite the good philosophy behind the saying that teachers must give a good example to their students, the students tend to only listen or take notes while the teacher is teaching. Therefore, they prefer keeping silent to giving their opinion in class. In addition, the 2018 Global Teacher Status Index (GTSI) reported by Varkey foundation confirmed that Indonesia is among the fifth highest teacher status countries for teachers compared to other countries (Dolton, et al., 2018). Therefore, in Indonesia students have high respect to their teachers because teachers are often considered as role models and hold higher rank within society.

Interestingly, some innovative teaching practices were noted by some student participants who pointed out that their teachers (T2-S1 and T6-S3) had good step-by-step strategies in teaching listening using songs and films. For example, when their teachers played the films or songs, in the first step Indonesian subtitles were provided, then in the second step English subtitles were used, and in the last no subtitles were provided. The students in these classes were asked to write the lyrics of the songs or the synopsis of the short films that they had watched after this process. Four out of five students in each focus group commented that they enjoyed this aspect as those strategies helped them understand the content of the AVA materials better.

Recommendations

Recommendations from some of the research participants and the study author, including on government policies and institutional guidelines as well as professional development for EFL teachers, are also outlined below.

Government policies and institutional guidelines

The findings of this study indicated that both teachers and students had positive attitudes towards the use of AVA in language teaching. However, there was a lack of institutional guidelines regarding AVA material integration in the Indonesian EFL junior high school settings. Therefore, it is expected that the government and schools or institutions develop EFL curriculum and course design which integrate AVA material as well as upgrade their infrastructure and AVA resources. In addition, the Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture are encouraged by the Indonesian EFL teacher association to create AVA materials specifically designed for educational purposes in junior high school contexts which consider the level of difficulty of the materials, the speed level of the native speakers’ conversations, as well as the suitability with the Indonesian local cultures so that the AVA material delivery will be more effective for school contexts.

Professional development for EFL teachers

The findings of this study revealed that there should be more attention paid to the AVA materials integration guidelines as most teachers claimed that despite the governments’ attempt to encourage the integration of AVA in EFL learning, there are still no clear institutional guidelines on how to incorporate AVA into EFL junior high school textbook and instructional designs. Therefore, it is likely to be of use to policy makers in the secondary education domain to provide more teacher training programs focused on developing AVA-based EFL materials, particularly at junior high school level.

Limitations of the study and possible directions for future research

As explained in the above sections, this study is limited in terms of the small number of the participants: only 8 English teachers and a total of 120 students from 4 different types of schools. Further study in this research area with larger sample sizes and from different types of schools will ensure more representative and generalisable findings and further construct a more holistic picture of how EFL teachers in fact integrate AVA in their teaching. In addition, further study could also use document review as the source of data collection. Furthermore, additional perspectives from stakeholders or parents’ points of view on the use of AVA integration are suggested to complement the findings of this study.

Despite these limitations, the results of this study identify various perspectives of both teachers and students from four different data sources which add insights into how both teachers and students perceive the use of AVA in EFL teaching in Indonesian junior high school contexts. The study results should provide both feasible and practical suggestions to the Indonesian education authority, which is now calling for a transformative, inclusive pedagogical approach to ensure high quality teaching and learning (Prayogo, 2022). In addition, the findings of this study provide wider implications for the Teaching of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) field globally, particularly in other countries in which English is taught as an EFL/ESL that share a similar educational context.

Reflections and conclusion

The overall findings of this study provide a useful insight on how both teachers and students perceive the use of AVA, which offer prominent benefits in EFL teaching: they improve students’ language competency, increase students’ motivation and engagement, and promote active learning environments. In conclusion, current EFL teachers should teach beyond the classroom, meaning that teachers should not only enhance students’ academic performance but also assure them a successful future and capacity to use language in everyday life. Therefore, teachers should highlight the significance of Audio-Visual Aids integration into language education due to the increase of students’ motivation and engagement when learning is personalised and relevant to their needs. The author recommends the use of AVA in English Language Teaching (ELT) in secondary settings to develop a student-centred approach and active learning that will create an engaging learning environment for all students with varied backgrounds and learning preferences, to foster inclusive pedagogies in language education.

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