Main Body

Chapter 9: Motor vehicles

Smart car on a highway with city in background. image created by author using DALL-E 2 AI.
Smart car on the highway. Image created by author using DALL-E 2 AI.

Motor vehicles contain many computer devices to control the multitude of aspects of the vehicle’s operation and driver’s choices. In many vehicles, a lot of decisions drivers used to be required to make such as correcting their position within a lane or keeping a safe distance from the vehicle in front is automatically done by the vehicle without driver intervention as the vehicle uses the sensors built into the architecture of the vehicle to make these important decisions.

Modern motor vehicles have been described as computers on wheels. Just as your laptop computer may show an error code when a function does not operate such as “404 Page Not Found” when looking for a web page on the internet, smart vehicles also generate codes that tell the driver and mechanic where existing or developing issues are occurring. They also record many events relating to the car’s activity. Digital diagnostics are performed to identify the health of the vehicle by a mechanic conducting a regular vehicle service which replaces the time and labour-intensive process of physically conducting a multitude of tests and visual inspection of the many components of a vehicle.

As the vehicle is creating, recording, and storing multitudes of data, it would be remiss of the investigator not to check this data as it may be of any value to their investigation. At the time of writing, few users, including criminals, have a full understanding of the data their vehicle is accumulating either from the vehicle architecture or the mobile devices attached by the driver and/or their passengers. This provides the investigator with an advantage that investigators of previous generations did not enjoy.

This form of data is of immense value to the criminal investigator who wishes to find out as much information about the vehicle’s use and the activities of the driver and passengers. A key part of any investigation is to link a person to a specific location at a specific time, and to a specific event such as a homicide, robbery or burglary. Connected technology, whether it be the watch, phone, clothing or motor vehicle is an excellent source of information.

The data generated by the vehicle provides valuable insight into the lifestyle, locations attended and behaviours of the users. Also, they’re associations. The data collected shows not only their locations but also personal information such as health, web browsing history, music choice and the manner they drive their vehicle.[1]

Much of this information is time stamped so the time of the vehicle can be determined for accuracy against a reliable measure such as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)or the time zone in which you reside. This data is valuable to the detective attempting to recreate the movements of a vehicle of interest and times specific actions were taken such as a person getting into and out of a car. It can also show the mindset of the driver by analysing the manner in which the car was being driven around the time the incident being investigated occurred.

Interconnectivity

Users pair their phones to cars to make and receive calls, receive and send messages, listen to music or use the GPS. The phone needs to be unlocked, and the user’s authority given, to pair the phone to the vehicle. At the time of pairing, device information is copied from the device to the vehicle’s infotainment unit and stored, often in an unencrypted format. This data is often accessible to investigators if required.

An AI generated image of a smart car with various digital connections.
A smart car with various digital connections. Image created by author using DALL-E 2

Few understand the car is data hungry and takes sets of data from the phone and stores it on computers within the car. Subsequently, the detective may arrest a person and attempt to obtain access to their phone without success, however a digital forensic examination on the vehicle’s infotainment unit their phone has been paired and synced to may provide access to much of the evidence they were seeking but prevented from accessing on the phone. This strategy may not be successful in every instance as vehicles and their components have different configurations and some data may be encrypted; however, it is a valid option when available as the evidence is of a high forensic standard.

Cars today are highly complex, and the collection and processing of data is integral to the motor vehicle becoming more educated about its surroundings, driver behaviour and decision-making based on predetermined rules. They can be seen as data harvesting machines.[2] The evidence that is available to the investigator depends upon many variables including the make and model of the vehicle, the manufacturer and version of the components, the mobile devices connected, the vehicle and devices Operating Systems (OS) as well as the OS version, and the digital forensic tools used in the examination. This is the same for most non-vehicle computer devices.

When data is captured within the multitude of control units or the infotainment unit, there is no guarantee that it is easily available. Inquiries may need to be made with the vehicle or component manufacturer to obtain data, otherwise, some data may be able to be recovered by the digital forensics investigators by using the On-Board Diagnostics (OBD) port to gain access. When the vehicle generates data, depending on the specifications of the vehicle, it is forwarded to the manufacturer for diagnostics. It may also be downloaded by a mechanic at the time of the vehicle being serviced. Subsequently, the manufacturer and/or service mechanic may offer places to make inquiries when seeking data on a vehicle of interest where a digital examination is not available due to encryption or other technical reasons. There is no guarantee the data you seek will be available as there are many technical variations on the vehicle’s component design, but as with any line of inquiry, if you do not ask, you will not find out.

The smart car is different to the autonomous car which is self-driving and can navigate to designated locations without the input of the driver. It operates off sensors, actuators and powerful software programs.[3] The autonomous car can understand the environment it is operating in and make decisions based on collected data, and previous learning and programming. It uses Artificial Intelligence (AI) to learn about its environment and adapt to evolving situations. Investigators will begin to see these vehicles appearing in their investigations more frequently and will enjoy the massive volumes of data these vehicles accumulate and store.

The major areas investigators will focus on when they seek data from a motor vehicle are the Electronic Control Units (ECU) including the infotainment unit, definitions of which are provided in the following table. These provide a detailed insight to the driver and in some cases passengers of a vehicle that will be useful to tell the detective as the ECUs collect data regarding a person’s lifestyles, habits and preferences.[4]

The motor vehicle connects to the environment it operates within through a Telematic Control Unit (TCU). The word telematics is a combination of telecommunications and informatics. It involves the transfer of data between the components of the vehicle, other vehicles, and the environment it operates within.  Informatics involves a method of processing and storing sources of data.[5]

The researchers Rak, Kopencova and Felcan identify the digital motor vehicle connections through the telematics unit with infrastructure, devices such as the mobile phone, the home wireless network, the electricity grid, other vehicles in Vehicle-to-Vehicle communication, remote networks and other possible digital connections.[6]

Generated data

The data generated has been classed under five major headings. These are firmware, communication data, user data, safety-related data and security-related data.[7]

  1. Firmware is identified as the software installed on an Electronic Control Unit including the Operating System, device drivers, applications and other data.
  2. Communication data is identified as the data that is transmitted inside and external to the vehicle to another party.[8] As mentioned in the previous paragraph, a vehicle may communicate with another vehicle on the road, the electricity grid, the home network and personal devices to name a few examples.
  3. User data. User data is defined as that created, modified or removed through the interaction of any party such as the owner or passenger interacting with the vehicle.[9]
  4. Safety-related data. This relates to the safety of the vehicle and its multitude of components. Examples include accident type, speed of travel, seat belt usage and vehicle motion.[10]
  5. Security events identify information relating to the potential misuse of the vehicle and/or its environment.[11]

Dashboard cameras

It is now a customary practice that when there is a serious motor vehicle crash or crime, police place a call out to the community seeking access to their dash cameras which may have caught evidence of the event or people/vehicles within the location at the time. A dashboard camera has been described as a mobile surveillance camera and can explain the situation of a crime scene.[12]

A dashboard camera may store data in an external SD card although some cameras sync data to cloud storage. [13] The cameras provide high quality evidence of events that can be incorporated into the overall investigation. They may catch the event in its entirety or provide evidence of events directly before or after the event. Examples of this form of evidence are common on the internet where news and specific websites show numerous examples of motor vehicle crashes or dangerous driving captured by dash cameras.

Electronic Control Units

Electronic Control Units (ECU) are a series of computer components that control the functions of a motor vehicle and form the core of the motor vehicle computer system that records the environment in which it is operating. The ECUs control specific functions of a vehicle and communicate with each other as necessary throughout internal networks. Examples of data ECUs capture, and store include the status of the engine, gearbox, airbag activity, fuel levels, overall vehicle status, and whether persons are wearing seatbelts.[14]

How many ECUs exist within a vehicle depends on the manufacturer with some manufacturers incorporating up to seventy in a vehicle.[15],[16]. These units may contain more than 150 million lines of source code and generate more than 25GB of data for every two hours the vehicle is in operation.[17] As technology evolves, others may include up to 100 ECUs.  Each of these ECUs collects data on the general operation of the vehicle monitoring how it is being operated and communicates with other ECU components, whilst ensuring the vehicle performs at peak efficiency and safety.

Examples of other ECUs include automatic braking, power windows, air conditioning, tyre pressure and engine performance. As they gather data, it is shared with other ECUs and their components so they can adjust, if required, to determine the maximum performance of the vehicle.

Event Data Recorder

The Event Data Recorder (EDR) is commonly called the vehicle’s “black box” which records the vehicle’s generated data up to five seconds of activity before a crash as well as the impact.[18] The investigator then has up to five seconds of data to understand events including the manner of driving, speed, brake activation and airbag activation. Predetermined data may be sent to the EDR from multiple ECUs in a specified format and sequential time sequences.[19]

Should a vehicle be involved in a collision, some vehicles have the capacity to automatically contact a live agent to provide assistance including calling emergency services or roadside assistance.[20]

Infotainment Unit

View of a smart car's digital infotainment unit.
A smart car’s digital infotainment unit. Photo by Brock Wegner on Unsplash

The infotainment unit is the part of the smart car the user most directly interacts with to access GPS Navigation, music, phone calls, chat messages etc. The infotainment unit may be a part of the vehicle manufactured and unique to the vehicle or provided by an external manufacturer such as Apple Car Play or Google Auto and installed separately.

A user connects their mobile device via Bluetooth or a USB connector which interacts with the infotainment unit. A user may use their mobile device, voice, console touchscreen or the controls on the steering wheel to interact with the infotainment unit. Examples of data generated and stored include routes travelled, favourite routes, favourite destinations, phone calls, text messaging, internet activity, and social media activity.[21]

Along with the telematics unit, this is an interesting place for the detective to find evidence of user behaviour including any potential incriminating activity. As with other ECUs, the infotainment activities are timestamped potentially allowing for a chronological order of events to be established.

Obtaining evidence from an ECU presents challenges for the digital examiner as hardware and software design differs by manufacturer and there is the potential for some data to be encrypted.[22]

Privacy International [23] identify rental cars have the connected data of previous clients stored within the vehicle’s infotainment unit as they may be unaware that the data they have transferred is still resident within the vehicle after they have returned it. This is a security vulnerability for previous users of the vehicle, however, if an investigator knows their suspect has been using rental cars to commit crimes, this may be a valuable source of evidence.

Key Fob

The remote access key fob has the potential to store valuable data such as the Vehicle Identification Number (VIN) the key is associated with, time stamps of use as well as the odometer reading of the vehicle. This may be useful if an investigator finds a remote key fob at a crime scene and seeks to identify the related vehicle.

The VIN is unique to a vehicle and stores an identifier, time date stamps, the time the key was used, odometer reading, the number of keys paired to the vehicle, fuel level and vehicle usage.[24]

Telematics Control Unit

As mentioned, a valuable ECU is called the Telematics Control Unit (TCU). This provides communication from the vehicle to the manufacturer, service/content providers and other connected vehicles. Communication may be via a SIM card built into the vehicle, a connection via the user’s mobile phone, or via an external modem.[25]

Telematics involves integrating technology gathered within the vehicle for communication to the service infrastructure or vehicle-to-vehicle communication. It includes data generated by the ECUs as well as the vehicle’s infotainment unit. The telematics systems gather data about the vehicle’s operation and driver behaviour as well as GPS location.[26]

The Telematics Control Unit (TCU) provides a platform to deliver this accumulated data outside of the vehicle to locations such as control centres, local infrastructure, Global Positioning Service (GPS) services and other vehicles within close proximity. In general, the telematics system exists to record and act on data about the vehicle and its operation.[27] The data sent to the component manufacturer and/or data centre may be another source of evidence.

Data available from a vehicle

The following data has been identified by researchers within vehicles. It is not practical to identify each vehicle, the forensic tools used, or the investigative strategy undertaken by digital forensic examiners to locate this data as this is also an evolving field. However, it is of value to note that the following data has been obtained through expert digital examination.

Some of the evidence listed below may be in the vehicle components or transferred from the mobile phone of a driver or passenger. An example of this is GPS data. Many new vehicles provide a GPS service built into the vehicle’s infotainment unit, whereas a user may prefer to use the service built into their connected mobile device. This is the personal choice of the driver. The resources listed in the footnotes below make a subjective decision under which heading to place such evidence, however, the essential information for the investigator is to know this evidence may exist and to ask their digital forensics expert to attempt to locate it from the most relevant component on the vehicle.

Before examining the ECUs, telematics and infotainment units, a digital forensics examiner will be able to identify fundamental information about the vehicle that may be of interest in establishing some basic background about the vehicle’s identity and its components.

Examples of vehicle data include:[28],[29],[30],[31]

    • Build number.
    • Device Id.
    • Part number.
    • Serial number.
    • Vehicle Identifier Number (VIN) number.

The VIN may be linked to many components of the vehicle including the instrument panel, tyre pressure monitor, antilock brake system, electronic steering lock, air conditioning unit, radio, telematics gateway, transmission control unit, and transmission control module.[32]

External connectivity

As mentioned, infotainment units are a major source of data/evidence, especially when external devices have been attached, which increases the amount of data/evidence available.

External devices identified by researchers include:[33],[34]

      • Media players.
      • Phones.
      • SD cards.
      • USB devices.
      • Wireless Access Points.

Devices connect to the vehicle in different ways. A car may connect to a home Wi-Fi from the garage and send vehicle data to, or receive software updates from, the manufacturer.

In this context, evidence relating to the remote connections to the vehicle includes:[35],[36],[37],[38]

      • Broadband information (username, password, phone number, carrier and country data set).
      • Mobile carrier.
      • USB external connections.
      • WiFi connections.
      • WiFi connections via hotspot.
      • WiFi Service Set Identifier (SSID).

GPS evidence

GPS data is of great value to a driver who can confidently receive visual or verbal directions to a location of interest without having to attempt to read road maps. GPS data is also of value to an investigator seeking to identify the movements of a vehicle and those associated with it.

Evidence relating to GPS includes:[39],[40],[41],[42],[43],[44],[45],[46]

      • History.
      • Home location of the users.
      • Location.
      • Navigation service.
      • Points of interest.
      • Saved locations.
      • Time sync.

Phone evidence

The mobile phone carries a lot of data that may be relevant to an investigation. In many instances, this data may be transferred to the vehicle once it is connected via Bluetooth or via a physical connection to the vehicle’s USB port. As mentioned, the vehicle may contain data from multiple mobile phones that have been connected to it over time, thereby showing a history of people who are connected to the vehicle.

A mobile device that has been jailbroken produces more evidence of data transferred to the vehicle’s infotainment unit. A jailbroken phone allows a user to gain access to the device’s OS that was previously prevented by the device and manufacturer’s operating system. Also, using high-end digital forensic products provides more access to digital evidence.

Having a mobile phone connected to a seized vehicle of interest can increase the amount of evidence available to the detective. Of note, not every app on a person’s mobile device will be able to be played on a vehicle’s infotainment unit, so under examination not all the app-related data can be located through a direct examination of the device.

Examples of mobile device evidence that has previously been located by digital examiners include:[47],[48],[49],[50],[51], [52] [53],[54],[55],[56],[57]

    • Applications installed including Spotify, Audiobooks, Amazon, WhatsApp, Waze GPS and iHeartRadio.
    • Application use whilst travelling. This may be the phone of the driver or passenger.
    • Audio usage identifying speaker or microphone usage.
    • Bluetooth connectivity.
    • Call history.
    • Contacts.
    • Cookies, history and temp internet files.
    • Credit card information.
    • Date and time the device was first attached to the vehicle.
    • Date of last use.
    • Device assistant usage e.g., Siri.
    • Device connection time and usage in seconds.
    • Email data.
    • Health information.
    • Images.
    • Internet history.
    • Message details including time sent through an assistant.
    • Music.
    • Phone connection.
    • Phone data.
    • Phone model and type.
    • Phone name.
    • Radio.
    • Schedules.
    • Social networking.
    • SMS messages.
    • Temperature when mobile device is plugged in.
    • USB connections.
    • Vehicle was in motion or stationery when communication being made.
    • Vehicles the mobile device has been attached to.
    • Video content.
    • Videos.
    • Vital signs.
    • Voice and data communications.
    • Voice, text, email and Social networking.

Criminals have been known to access current or ex-rental cars and download all the data from numerous people who have hired a vehicle and paired their mobile device for easy access to their contact list, navigation and other apps. It is expected that amongst all the low-value messages there will be valuable information on which to profile an individual to commit offences such as identity theft or to prepare a social media fraud.

Many car rental companies have corporate clients, and valuable business communications can be transferred from a secured corporate mobile device to an insecure motor vehicle infotainment unit.[58]

Key Takeaways

Key Takeaways

As we can see from the many research sources referred to in this chapter, a motor vehicle can provide a lot of valuable information to the investigator that was previously unattainable. As cars are evolving to collect ever larger volumes of data, it becomes as relevant as any other source of evidence an investigator may collect during a case.

The main source of the data is from the vehicle itself, but the investigator can also look to the manufacturer, dealer and/or service mechanic for captured data. Third-party providers of the components of the vehicle may also be of value to see what data their components capture and transmit via the telematics control unit.

Scenario

Sledge arrived in a ride-share vehicle at the scene and the cooperation of the driver will be sought. Alex’s vehicle is loaded with the latest technology and once recovered, investigators will focus on the following data and create a timeline of activity.

1. GPS coordinates to place Sledge at the scene, at his home address and at the site where he disposed of Alex’s body. It will be noted that Sledge returned to Alex’s address once he had possession of the car, and investigators will be interested to see why he did this. GPS coordinates will show the next location Sledge travelled to was remote, which is activity consistent with the collection and disposal of a body.

GPS coordinates can show historical data proving that the vehicle had never been to Sledge’s home, or the disposal site before which indicates that a different person was driving the vehicle or a new series of events had occurred for these locations to be visited. It can also show the driver drove directly to these locations without the requirement to seek directions from the mapping service indicating the driver knew the way to these locations. Other GPS data of interest will be Points of Interest, saved locations, home location and the vehicle’s travel history.

2. Manner and speed of driving. As with GPS, this can be obtained and reviewed against previous driving patterns. Sledge drove the vehicle quickly and erratically away from Alex’s house as he became used to the powerful new vehicle. There are many forms of evidence available that demonstrates the manner of driving including braking, Engine Revolutions per Minute (RPM), fuel consumption, metres moved per second, odometer readings and speed.

3. Phones synced to the vehicle. Sledge synced his phone to Alex’s vehicle after leaving the address in the first instance and data would have been transferred across including the Media Access Control Address (MAC), messages and contacts. The MAC will also contain Alex’s phone details which may provide access to information that cannot be obtained from the phone, such as apps requiring an unknown password/code.

4. The infotainment unit captures data synced from Sledge’s phone including contacts, date and time the device was connected to the vehicle, when last used, apps used whilst driving, phone make and model and the phone name.

5. Service Set Identifier (SSID) of Alex’s home network shows the vehicle is connected to Alex’s Wi-Fi network. Alex updated the car’s Operating System (OS) and components whilst at home through his Wi-Fi network.

6. Vehicle details and components such as Build Number and Vehicle Identification Number (VIN).

7. Time and date data. As the vehicle is connected to the internet via the home Wi-Fi network of Alex, it can be seen the time is the same as the phone and other connected devices.

  1. Lawson, P. & Lawton, B. (2017) The connected car. Who is in the driver’s seat? Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://fipa.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CC_report_lite.pdf ↵
  2. Ibid. ↵
  3. Feng, X., Dawam, E. S., & Amin, S. (2017). A New Digital Forensics Model of Smart City Automated Vehicles. IEEE Xplore. https://doi.org/10.1109/iThings-GreenCom-CPSCom-SmartData.2017.47 ↵
  4. Lawson, P. & Lawton, B. (2017) The connected car. Who is in the driver’s seat? Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://fipa.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CC_report_lite.pdf ↵
  5. Rak, R., Kopencova, D., & Felcan, M. (2021). Digital vehicle identity – Digital VIN in forensic and technical practice. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation, 39, 301307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsidi.2021.301307 ↵
  6. Ibid. ↵
  7. Gomez Buquerin, K. K., Corbett, C., & Hof, H.-J. (2021). A generalized approach to automotive forensics. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation, 36, 301111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsidi.2021.301111 ↵
  8. Ibid. ↵
  9. Ibid. ↵
  10. Ibid. ↵
  11. Ibid. ↵
  12. Lee, K., Choi, J.-H., Park, J., & Lee, S. (2021). Your car is recording: Metadata-driven dashcam analysis system. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation, 38, 301131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsidi.2021.301131 ↵
  13. Ibid. ↵
  14. Kopencova, D. & Rak, R. (2020). Issues of Vehicle Digital Forensics. 2020 XII International Science-Technical Conference AUTOMOTIVE SAFETY. 21-23 October 2020, on IEEE Xplore. https://doi.org/10.1109/AUTOMOTIVESAFETY47494.2020.9293516. ↵
  15. Lawson, P. & Lawton, B. (2017) The connected car. Who is in the driver’s seat? Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://fipa.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CC_report_lite.pdf ↵
  16. Kopencova, D. & Rak, R. (2020). Issues of Vehicle Digital Forensics. 2020 XII International Science-Technical Conference AUTOMOTIVE SAFETY. 21-23 October 2020, on IEEE Xplore. https://doi.org/10.1109/AUTOMOTIVESAFETY47494.2020.9293516. ↵
  17. Ibid. ↵
  18. Schaub n.d. Automobile Forensics -Destroying Alibis One Car at a Time. (n.d.). Retrieved July 1, 2023, from https://cdn.ymaws.com/mcaa-mn.org/resource/resmgr/Files/Newsletters/Final_Article_by_Brook_Schau.pdf ↵
  19. Kopencova, D. & Rak, R. (2020). Issues of Vehicle Digital Forensics. 2020 XII International Science-Technical Conference AUTOMOTIVE SAFETY. 21-23 October 2020, on IEEE Xplore. https://doi.org/10.1109/AUTOMOTIVESAFETY47494.2020.9293516. ↵
  20. Lawson, P. & Lawton, B. (2017) The connected car. Who is in the driver’s seat? Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://fipa.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CC_report_lite.pdf ↵
  21. Kopencova, D. & Rak, R. (2020). Issues of Vehicle Digital Forensics. 2020 XII International Science-Technical Conference AUTOMOTIVE SAFETY. 21-23 October 2020, on IEEE Xplore. https://doi.org/10.1109/AUTOMOTIVESAFETY47494.2020.9293516. ↵
  22. Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE). (2023) Best practice for vehicle infotainment and telematics systems. Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://www.swgde.org/12-f-005/ ↵
  23. Connected Cars: What Happens To Our Data On Rental Cars? (2017). https://www.privacyinternational.org/sites/default/files/2017-12/cars_briefing.pdf ↵
  24. Kopencova, D. & Rak, R. (2020). Issues of Vehicle Digital Forensics. 2020 XII International Science-Technical Conference AUTOMOTIVE SAFETY. 21-23 October 2020, on IEEE Xplore. https://doi.org/10.1109/AUTOMOTIVESAFETY47494.2020.9293516. ↵
  25. Lawson, P. & Lawton, B. (2017) The connected car. Who is in the driver’s seat? Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://fipa.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CC_report_lite.pdf ↵
  26. Ibid. ↵
  27. Ibid. ↵
  28. Bolle, J. & LeMere, B. Digital Forensics Magazine Vehicles Solve Crime. (n.d.). Www.digitalforensicsmagazine.com. Retrieved July 1, 2023, from https://www.digitalforensicsmagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&id=1117 ↵
  29. Lacroix, J., El-Khatib, K. & Akalu, R. (2016). Vehicular Digital Forensics. Proceedings of the 6th ACM Symposium on Development and Analysis of Intelligent Vehicular Networks and Applications. https://doi.org/10.1145/2989275.2989282 ↵
  30. Henry, P.A. (2017) SANS Digital Forensics and Incident Response Blog | Digital Forensics - Automotive Infotainment and Telematics Systems | SANS Institute. (n.d.). Www.sans.org. https://www.sans.org/blog/digital-forensics-automotive-infotainment-and-telematics-systems/ ↵
  31. Schaub, T. (2016). Best practice for vehicle infotainment and telematics systems. Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://cdn.ymaws.com/mcaa-mn.org/resource/resmgr/Files/Newsletters/Final_Article_by_Brook_Schau.pdf ↵
  32. Rak, R., Kopencova, D., & Felcan, M. (2021). Digital vehicle identity – Digital VIN in forensic and technical practice. Forensic Science International: Digital Investigation, 39, 301307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsidi.2021.301307 ↵
  33. Bolle, J. & LeMere, B. Digital Forensics Magazine Vehicles Solve Crime. (n.d.). Www.digitalforensicsmagazine.com. Retrieved July 1, 2023, from https://www.digitalforensicsmagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&id=1117 ↵
  34. Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE). (2023) Best practice for vehicle infotainment and telematics systems. Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://www.swgde.org/12-f-005// ↵
  35. Bolle, J. & LeMere, B. Digital Forensics Magazine Vehicles Solve Crime. (n.d.). www.digitalforensicsmagazine.com. Retrieved July 1, 2023, from https://www.digitalforensicsmagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&id=1117 ↵
  36. Lacroix, J., El-Khatib, K. & Akalu, R. (2016). Vehicular Digital Forensics. Proceedings of the 6th ACM Symposium on Development and Analysis of Intelligent Vehicular Networks and Applications. https://doi.org/10.1145/2989275.2989282 ↵
  37. Henry, P.A. (2017) SANS Digital Forensics and Incident Response Blog | Digital Forensics - Automotive Infotainment and Telematics Systems | SANS Institute. (n.d.). Www.sans.org. https://www.sans.org/blog/digital-forensics-automotive-infotainment-and-telematics-systems/ ↵
  38. Scientific Working Group on Digital Evidence (SWGDE). (2023) Best practice for vehicle infotainment and telematics systems. Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://www.swgde.org/12-f-005// ↵
  39. Bolle, J. & LeMere, B. Digital Forensics Magazine Vehicles Solve Crime. (n.d.). Www.digitalforensicsmagazine.com. Retrieved July 1, 2023, from https://www.digitalforensicsmagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&id=1117 ↵
  40. Lawson, P. & Lawton, B. (2017) The connected car. Who is in the driver’s seat? Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://fipa.bc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/CC_report_lite.pdf ↵
  41. Silberg, G., Plesco, R., Rotman, D., & Le, D. (2016). Your connected car. Who is talking? Who’s listening? Retrieved 1 July 2023 from https://assets.kpmg.com/content/dam/kpmg/ch/pdf/your-connected-car-is-talking-en.pdf ↵
  42. Lacroix, J., El-Khatib, K. & Akalu, R. (2016). Vehicular Digital Forensics. Proceedings of the 6th ACM Symposium on Development and Analysis of Intelligent Vehicular Networks and Applications. https://doi.org/10.1145/2989275.2989282 ↵
  43. Connected Cars: What Happens To Our Data On Rental Cars? (2017). https://www.privacyinternational.org/sites/default/files/2017-12/cars_briefing.pdf ↵
  44. Henry, P.A. (2017) SANS Digital Forensics and Incident Response Blog | Digital Forensics - Automotive Infotainment and Telematics Systems | SANS Institute. (n.d.). Www.sans.org. https://www.sans.org/blog/digital-forensics-automotive-infotainment-and-telematics-systems/ ↵
  45. Schaub n.d. Automobile Forensics -Destroying Alibis One Car at a Time. (n.d.). Retrieved July 1, 2023, from https://cdn.ymaws.com/mcaa-mn.org/resource/resmgr/Files/Newsletters/Final_Article_by_Brook_Schau.pdf ↵
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Digital Evidence Manual Copyright © 2024 by Graeme Edwards is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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