We have seen how connected technology is embedded into people’s personal lives through their motor vehicles, mobile devices, clothing and within their homes. Now governments are taking advantage of the many forms of industrial connected technology to try and make their cities more efficient and effective for those who work and/or live within them.

There are many names for connected cities with two of the most popular being smart or intelligent cities which has created many differing definitions of what a smart or connected city is. For the sake of consistency, this chapter shall use the term smart city.

The Organisation Internationale de Normalisation (ISO) describes smart cities as

“Smart cities rely on integrated and interconnected strategies and systems to effectively provide better services and increase quality of life, ensuring equal opportunities to all and protecting the environment.”^[1]

The World Economic Forum polled attendees at a 2021 World Bank event and identified the following definition:

“A smart city is one that uses technology to efficiently engage citizens and meet their needs. In the post-pandemic era, we must prioritize measures to address inequality and digital divides, which leave many of the poor, and poor cities, behind. Data privacy and transparency must be protected. Cities become smarter when citizens and communities use technology to create an environment where their digital rights are protected, and their cities are made more sustainable.”^[2]

IBM states:

“The use of Information and Communications Technologies in collecting data and integrating the key information of core systems in running those cities, while also making intelligent responses to different needs that includes daily livelihood, environmental protection, public safety, industrial and commercial activities and city services.”^[3]

By using IBM’s vision of a smart city, Privacy International has identified the main features involving the development of smart cities^[4]:

• • • Dependable and appropriate transport.
    • Dependable and appropriate water supply.
    • Efficient buildings.
    • Efficient citizen services.
    • Efficient support to the aging population.
    • Efficient water supply.
    • Healthy citizens.
    • Highly skilled workforce.
    • High speed connectivity for business and citizens.
    • Local authority enabling priorities.
    • Reduced crime; increased feeling of safety.
    • Sustainable environment.
    • Sustainable energy supply.
    • Thriving local economy.

Microsoft identifies components of the smart city technology solutions to include:^[5]

• • • Artificial intelligence.
    • Augmented Reality.
    • Blockchain technology.
    • Cloud computing.
    • Edge computing.
    • Internet of Things.

A smart city uses information and communication technology to enhance its liveability and sustainability. Data is collected by sensors, devices and other technological systems and sent for analysis to understand events as they happen and in anticipation of future events.^[6] The aim of smart cities is to make them more efficient, sustainable and liveable where critical infrastructure such as roads, tunnels, airways, railways, communications and power supplies can be monitored to optimise resources.^[7]

A smart city may incorporate technology in the following fields:^[8]

1. 1. 1. Smart buildings.
      2. Education and medical care.
      3. Smart energy.
      4. Smart grid including water, gas, energy.
      5. Smart utilities such as water and waste management.
      6. Smart parking.
      7. Integrated supply systems of supply and demand.
      8. Smart transport.

Whilst there are many compelling reasons for the accumulation of data within a smart city, the nature of these devices may be very invasive to the lives of those residing and operating within this monitored environment, including investigators.  Whenever any investigator considers seeking evidence from any component of a smart city, it is necessary to consider the privacy implications of those who are also within the area but not involved in the matter under investigation and ensure data is not collected outside of the legal and ethical boundaries of any investigation.

In this chapter, we shall identify components of a smart city as identified by Eremia, Toma & Sanduleac and identify what data may be collected and be able to assist the investigator.^[9] It is to be noted this is a very dynamic area with the technology subject to rapid change along with the definition of a smart city and the definitions of its components.

Smart buildings

Integrated technology is at the core of smart buildings. It combines the installation and use of integrated building technologies including building automation, life safety, telecommunications, user systems and facility management systems.^[10]

The Internet of Things (IoT) Security Foundation identifies there may be many components involved in a smart building and when combined, these allow a smart building to be managed automatically and observed remotely.

Components may include:^[11],^[12],^[13]

• • • Access control.
    • Air conditioning.
    • Closed Circuit Television.
    • Connected controls.
    • Elevators and escalators.
    • Energy systems.
    • Environmental controls.
    • Electric Vehicle charging.
    • External systems and data feed.
    • Fire detection and alarm.
    • Gas network.
    • Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning.
    • Lighting.
    • Occupancy sensors.
    • Parking.
    • Power grid and generation.
    • Security services.
    • Thermostats.
    • Uninterruptable Power Supply.
    • Water supply.

A Building Automation Systems (BAS) controls the components of the smart building seeking to maximise the efficiency and effectiveness of the components. The BAS is composed of sensors, output devices, communication protocols, controllers collecting data obtained from sensors as well as an interface through which the building manager or other authorised person may control the building and its components.^[14]

The IoT Security Foundation further explains a smart building can create large volumes of data. The combination of predictive analytics, machine learning, and other branches of Artificial Intelligence (AI) allows the optimal use of assets, operations and resources.^[15]

Within the Building Automation Systems and network, the following evidence may be available:^[16]

• • • CCTV footage for review to identify persons involved in an event.
    • Connection logs.
    • Firewall Intrusion Detection System (IDS)/Intrusion Prevention System (IPS). This data will provide evidence of unlawful or malicious activity within the BAS.
    • Internal logging devices. Records all the activity within the BAS where log files are being recorded. Can be used to help recreate events in an investigation. All of the features of a smart building as listed in the paragraphs above can be expected to generate activity logs, although whether they are stored and preserved will often be an individual decision of the operator of the BAS. Those stored may be in Comma Separated Values file format (CSV) or other database formats.
    • Sensors activating generating smart building activity.
    • Structured Query Value programming language.
    • Trend logs (value changes).

All of these logs provide technical evidence of the operation of the BAS including computer programming. The assistance of a highly qualified technical expert would be required to assist the investigation team in assimilating this data into an investigation.

Some smart buildings provide users access to free wireless connections. Even if this service is not provided, then there are numerous modems collecting Media Access Control (MAC) identifiers of mobile devices within the environment. As we discussed earlier, the MAC address is recorded by modems when there is an attempt to pair a device to the modem, regardless of whether the connection is made or not.

Bluetooth also captures data from users within the environment. A strategy used in retail is tracking beacons which captures a users mobile device Bluetooth MAC address. The value to the investigator is being able to identify a certain mobile device and probably the device owner was at a certain location at a certain point to time.

Education

There are many definitions of what smart learning is and most involve incorporating technology more directly into the teaching methodologies. One definition is:

“The goal of smart education is to foster smart learners to meet the needs of work and life in the 21st Century.” ^[17]

Smart education involves using the most advanced technologies, personalising the teaching and learning processes and increasing the appeal of creativity-centred education.^[18] An example of teaching in a smart learning environment is using Augmented Reality, Virtual Reality and gamification which can be very appealing to students.^[19] In effect, smart education is learning about the new technology being developed, assessing its value for the many different forms of learning and assimilating the technology into the learning process for students and teachers.

The smart learning environment does not necessarily need to be within a classroom as traditional teaching has been. With the development of mobile, connected and personal technologies, mobile learning is evolving, and learning can be at times, locations and environments that are suitable to the individual learner.^[20]

Teaching strategies evolve from the large amounts of data collected from the smart learning environment. Cloud computing, learning analytics, big data, the Internet of Things and wearable technology promote the smart learning environment. Data from these sources can be captured, analysed and directed to adaptive learning.^[21],^[22]

The goal of smart education is to foster the knowledge and skills of the 21st Century to meet the needs and challenges of society. Smart education recognises learning can occur anywhere at any time and encompasses learning styles such as formal and informal learning, and personal and social learning. Smart education is intelligent, personalised to the learner and adaptive to their learning environment.^[23]

Evidence available includes:^[25]

• • • Big data analytics.
    • Cloud computing services.
    • Education games.
    • Hardware and software.
    • Interactive whiteboard.
    • Internet of Things technology.
    • Learning applications.
    • Learning tools.
    • Mobile phone.
    • Sensors.
    • Smart table.
    • Smart devices.
    • Virtual reality.
    • Wearable devices.

Smart Health

The European Commission defines smart health as:

“Digital health and care refer to tools and services that use information and communication technologies (ICTs) to improve prevention, diagnosis, treatment, monitoring and management of health-related issues and to monitor and manage lifestyle-habits that impact health. Digital health and care is innovative and can improve access to care and the quality of that care, as well as to increase the overall efficiency of the health sector.” ^[26]

Smart health allows medical practitioners to remotely collect data on their patients and monitor their lifestyle and health indicators.^[27] The practitioner is not restricted to patients within their geographical area and can provide preventative advice and emergency detection to patients as the need arises.^[28]

Smart health includes disease prevention and monitoring, diagnosis and treatment, hospital management, health decision-making and medical research.^[29] The core of smart health is identified as the Internet of Things, mobile internet, cloud computing, big data, 5G communications technology, microelectronics and artificial intelligence as well as modern biotechnology.

As smart medical technology evolves, treatments become more accurate as the practitioner has more accurate and timely data from which to make their diagnosis and devise their treatment plan.^[30],^[31]

Smart health includes smart hospitals. Services may be based on location recognitions and tracking technology measuring and monitoring data. It also includes high-speed connectivity, Internet of things attached to the networks including attached to patients such as identifiers and health devices such as wearables.^[32] Surgery can be conducted by surgical robots.^[33]

Evidence available includes:^[34]

• • • Applications.
    • Connecting technologies such as mobile devices or fixed networked devices.
    • Database management.
    • End-user devices.
    • GPS sensors.
    • In-vitro sensors attached externally to the body.
    • In-vivo sensors are implantable devices placed inside the body.
    • Medical devices.
    • Mobile or wearable sensors.
    • Network management includes link sensors, routers and base stations.
    • On-body sensors such as biosensors.
    • Pattern analysis application to monitor the history of an individual.
    • Remote management.
    • Security management.
    • Sensors may include temperature, ECG, blood pressure, blood glucose, EMG, heart rate, spO2, gyroscope, motion sensors and accelerometers.

Smart energy

As with other smart components of the smart city, there are many different definitions of what smart energy is. One definition is:

“Smart electrical energy system that interconnects all utilities and end-users via a smart infrastructure.” ^[35]

One component of smart energy is the monitoring of energy use in the community and balancing energy demands where possible. In the residential market, consumers have a smart meter box attached to their home to provide details on the amount of electricity a house is using.^[36] Energy consumption patterns can be used to study the amount of electricity being used within a neighbourhood at a time and help authorities calculate the amount of electricity a city may require in given circumstances.

The investigator may find the data from a smart meter interesting in the instances of examining the amount of electricity a house has used since a change of ownership. Significant electricity usage when compared to others in the neighbourhood could have meaning meanings ranging from innocent explanations such as the occupants used the air conditioning units far more than others or the house is being used to house an illegal cannabis crop.

Smart grid

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) describes a smart grid as:

“It is generally understood that the smart grid encompasses the modernisation of the electric grid. This comprises everything related to the electric system between any point of generation and any point of consumption. Smart grid technologies allow the grid to become more flexible, interactive and enable it to provide real-time feedback. It incorporates technologies and services that facilitate intelligent monitoring, control communication and self-healing technologies.” ^[37]

A smart grid involves consumers sharing information about their energy consumption with electricity providers. A smart meter records the data and the multitudes of smart meters over a grid can be used to study consumption patterns and efficiently manage supply and demand.

The evidence available includes:^[39]

• • • Communication gateways.
    • Connection logs (sys logs, console logs, network packet capture).
    • Cyber-security and digital forensics.
    • Firewall.
    • ICS systems.
    • Intrusion Detection Systems/Intrusion Prevention Systems.
    • Sensors/actuators.
    • Smart appliances.
    • Smart metres.
    • System logs (Authentication, OS, application) (Future challenges for smart cities.
    • Usage logs.

Smart utilities

Smart utilities are another component of the smart city. A definition is:

“The intelligent management of the water distribution system and wastewater.” ^[40]

The ability to monitor water usage in real-time from a user is a key component of a water management system. This allows a user to be aware of their usage and adjust their use of this resource.^[41] This technology allows users and suppliers to identify water leaks and take rectification action to reduce water loss.^[42]

The accurate recording of water usage by a client allows bills to be promptly generated and forwarded to the user as manual meter readings are replaced by real-time technology.^[43]

Water use can be used to identify the number of persons within a residence when usage is analysed over a given period of time.^[44] The data generated by smart metres and other Internet of Things (IoT) sensors can measure user behaviour and alter it to change consumption behaviour and general distribution.^[45]Smart metres connected to the network are able to deliver up to 500 messages per day.

IoT sensors can also manage wastewater including identifying water that is suitable for reuse.^[46]

Evidence available includes:

• • • Account information.
    • Account consumption information.
    • Data on water leakages on a specific account.^[47]
    • Metres from end users.
    • Motors.
    • Pumping systems.
    • Renewable power source metres.
    • Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) software.^[48]

Smart parking

Definition: “Managing the parking systems using sensors and CCTV.” ^[49]

A smart city incorporates sensors to collect and forward data for processing in a cloud computing environment where decisions are made and activated. Examples of sensors may include smart parking which are commonly observed in shopping malls, mapping real-time traffic flows as well as street lighting to maximize the efficiency of electricity required to provide lighting to the city. Sensors can be used in car parks to identify vacant spots.

Integrated supply systems

Integrating supply systems across the features of a smart city leads to a more efficient ecosystem.

“Synchronising the supply with the demand; measurement, monitoring and organisation of the transportation around the supply chains of the city.” ^[50]

There is a lot of data being created within a smart city with more utilities being incorporated within the technological environment each year. As with other technology, they collect vast amounts of data for analytical purposes, and depending upon the circumstances, they may be able to advance your investigation in some manner.

The components of the smart city are being integrated to provide seamless services to the community including increasing the quality of services available. Energy, water, transportation, public health and other services seek to support the smooth operation of critical infrastructure.^[51]

Sensors are a device that detects and responds to changes in the environment and are at the heart of the smart environment as it is through sensors that the data is captured and forwarded onto the networks for processing and storing. The quality and accuracy of sensors are essential to having an accurate and reliable network as with all computer systems, if the quality of inputs is of an inferior standard, the outputs reflect this.

Categories of Internet of Things sensors located in smart cities include:^[52]

• • • Electromagnetic field levels: Measurement of energy radiated by RF-capable devices.
    • Noise urban maps: bar areas and centric zones.
    • Smart lighting: Intelligent and weather adaptive.
    • Smart parking.
    • Smartphone detection: Connects with Wi-Fi, Bluetooth or cellular interfaces.
    • Smart roads.
    • Structural health: Monitoring of vibrations and material conditions in buildings, bridges and historical monuments.
    • Traffic congestion: Vehicles and pedestrians to optimise driving and walking routes.
    • Waste management: Rubbish levels in containers.

Sensory data is of a high forensic value as the ability of these devices to capture events such as movement patterns of a mobile device or a vehicle over time, can prove to be of significance. This data is stored at centralized base stations with much of the data generated by IoT devices stored in the cloud.^[55]

In effect, if a sensor is collecting data as it is being generated, it will be linked to a network which in itself will be a source of potential evidence.

Smart transport

Cities have identified the smooth flow of traffic achieved by smart and integrated transport systems can have a positive effect on the operation of a city, described as:.

“Traffic monitoring and real-time optimisation using and combining all transportation means.” ^[56] 

A detailed examination of smart vehicles is included in Chapter 8. This identifies there are large volumes of evidence available to the investigator as the vehicle interacts with the environment in which it operates. An example of this interaction is the GPS coordinates and direction of travel of a smart vehicle may be captured by the smart city infrastructure and used to assist and determine the flow of traffic including traffic light management. ^[57]

Components of a smart city’s traffic infrastructure may include:^[58],^[59]

• • • Congestion sensors.
    • Driverless vehicles.
    • GPS coordinates of vehicles.
    • Smart parking meters.
    • Smart roads.
    • Traffic congestion management.

As data is generated, evidence becomes available to the investigator who is aware of its existence and ability to obtain it.

Investigators

An investigator may find the need to locate evidence from a single or multiple components of a smart city. As always, this will depend upon the nature of the investigation and the evidence being sought. The evidence available and introduced throughout this chapter is expected to change as technology evolves and data capture/storage techniques adapt to the changing ecosystem. As these components generate large amounts of data per second, requests for data will need to be made promptly as storage capacity, whilst large, will still be limited.

Smart cities record large volumes of data as it is generated. The log files associated with the data record very precise details of activities that may be perceived as being more accurate than the evidence of an eyewitness to an event.^[61] It may be useful to the investigator in circumstances, such as to establish alibis and vehicle travelling routes.^[62]

Cities are providing free Wi-Fi within areas for easy internet access to people within the area. Due to the nature of the communication between a mobile device such as a phone and the network architecture, the phone with the wireless setting switched on leaves its digital fingerprint, known as the Media Access Control (MAC) address of the local architecture. This is discussed in Chapter 5 “Mobile phones”. This form of evidence can be used to track the movements of persons of interest within the Wi-Fi zone and the logs used to establish a timeline recording their movements.^[63]

For the investigator, being able to collect evidence from a smart city infrastructure may be of benefit in many circumstances. One hypothetical scenario could be when seeking the location, or movements, of a vehicle involved in a real time situation such as an abduction. Locating the vehicle of interest could then lead to the lead investigator organizing with the local smart city authorities to arrange for that vehicle to be caught in a traffic jam that may allow police to arrive at the location of the vehicle in a timely manner.

The weather in a crime scene may be relevant to investigators such as when a deceased person has been located and there is a need to calculate a possible time of death using techniques that may include the weather, temperature and condensation in the air within a designated range of dates.^[64]

Whilst the smart city is a plan that many cities are still to embrace, the investigator may find the evidence they seek may theoretically be available, but not so in reality. The standards and the interoperability of the components of the smart city network are still emerging meaning a smart city network may operate on different technical protocols, some of which do not always communicate with other technology.^[65] This means that recording and storage of events may not be available in all instances.

Investigation challenges

Whilst large volumes of data are being generated, collected and stored, there are challenges in obtaining this data and incorporating it into an investigation.

Smart cities present a wealth of evidence of the movement, activities and behaviours of the inhabitants of such a city. The sensory apparatus of a smart city has the potential to provide input from CCTV, motion detectors, air quality sensors, smart meters and RF sensors.

Scenario